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science

The climatic differences between Mars and Earth, considered “sister planets” due to some basic similarities, such as rotation and axis, size and rock composition, have long intrigued scientists. Today, these distinctions are what drive most scientific research on the red planet.

One such research instrument, NASA’s Curiosity rover, currently in Gale Crater on the Martian equator, has provided some previously unseen details about how the ancient climate of Mars went from being potentially suitable for life, including liquid water available on its surface, to a desert hostile to life developing under terrestrial conditions.

In a study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), researchers used Curiosity’s instruments to produce an isotopic composition of the crater’s carbonates, materials rich in carbon. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, the isotopes reveal information about the origin, physical processes and environmental conditions of the formation of these materials.

Isotopic analysis of the history of climate on Mars

The choice of Martian carbon isotopes was not by chance. A fundamental element for life, carbon is an important marker when it comes to climate records. These minerals can retain signatures of their original formation contexts, including the temperature and acidity of the water, and the chemical composition of the water and atmosphere.

The research follows the following principles: as the water evaporated, light versions of carbon and oxygen were more likely to escape into the atmosphere, leaving behind heavier versions that ended up incorporated into the carbonate rocks on the surface.

After reading the paper, the article proposes two possible processes for the formation of carbonates on Gale. The first points to a scenario in which the carbonates are formed by a series of wet-dry cycles within the Martian crater. In the second, the carbonates form in very salty water under cold ice-forming (cryogenic) conditions within the crater.

Two Proposals for the Climate of Mars

In a statement, co-author Jennifer Stern, a planetary geochemist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, USA, explains that each formation mechanism represents a different climate regime. These, in turn, can influence the habitability of the planet over time.

Thus, the wet-dry cycle suggests alternating periods between conditions more favorable and less favorable to life. During the wet phases, there may have been liquid water available on the surface or in underground layers, which is essential for the existence of chemical and biological processes that sustain life.

The cryogenic conditions, predominant in the middle latitudes of Mars, indicate extremely cold temperatures, with most of the water confined in the form of ice. In addition, this water is highly saline, which makes the environment inhospitable to the formation of life as we know it.

Comparing the isotopes of Mars with those of Earth

Martian carbonates have significantly higher values ​​of carbon and oxygen isotopes than those found on Earth. According to the authors, these are the highest values ​​ever recorded for any known Martian material, indicating that unique environmental or geological processes influenced the formation of these minerals on the planet.

For the paper’s first author, David Burtt of NASA Goddard, these exceptional isotopic values ​​indicate intense evaporation, two to three times greater than any observed on Earth. This intensity explains the enrichment in heavy isotopes and their preservation, showing that processes capable of creating lighter isotopes had less impact or intensity on Mars.

Although wet-dry and cold-salty climate scenarios for the ancient red planet have previously been proposed based on modeling and minerals, this study is the first to provide direct isotopic evidence. Analysis of rock samples confirms previously suggested climate models.

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Mars: from a habitable planet to an inhospitable desert

The night sky has always been an inexhaustible source of fascination for humanity, and 2025 will be no different! The nights of 2025 promise to be even more special, bringing astronomical events that will not only beautify the firmament, but also connect people to the Cosmos in a unique way.

For astronomy lovers living in Brazil, many of these opportunities will be visible in excellent conditions, allowing everyone, even without sophisticated equipment, to marvel.

Here is a summary of the best celestial spectacles of next year for you to mark on your calendar and prepare your observation instruments. Check out some of the main astronomical events of 2025!

Astronomical Calendar 2025

Quadrantid meteor showers – January 3 and 4
In the early days of the year, on the night and morning of January 3 and 4, respectively, the Quadrantid meteor shower will peak in activity, a medium-sized event capable of producing around 40 meteors per hour.

The shower is produced by the debris of an extinct comet called 2003 EH1 and occurs every year from January 1 to 5.

Total Lunar Eclipse – March 14

In March, the sky will be adorned by the famous "Blood Moon". The phenomenon is, in fact, a total lunar eclipse, in which the Earth will block the sunlight that reaches the Moon, causing the satellite to acquire a reddish hue due to the refraction of light in the Earth's atmosphere.

Partial Solar Eclipse – March 29

A partial solar eclipse occurs when the Moon covers only a portion of the Sun, sometimes resembling a bite of a cookie. A partial solar eclipse can only be safely observed with a special solar filter or by looking at the Sun’s reflection.

This partial eclipse will be visible from all of Greenland and most of northern Europe and Russia. It will be best seen from Canada, where the Moon will cover about 93% of the Sun’s disk.

Perseid Meteor Shower – August 12 and 13
This famous meteor shower, caused by debris from Comet Swift-Tuttle, lights up the sky with fast, bright meteors. Although its peak is most intense in the Northern Hemisphere.

Saturn at Opposition – August 23

The ringed planet will be at its closest approach to Earth and its face will be fully illuminated by the Sun. It will be brighter than at any other time of the year and will be visible all night.

This is the best time to view and photograph Saturn and its moons. A medium to large telescope will allow you to see Saturn’s rings and some of its brightest moons.

Orionid Meteor Shower – October 21 and 22
The Orionids, produced by the space debris left behind by Halley’s Comet, will be visible in dark skies around the world. Although the meteor shower rate is moderate (about 20 per hour), the beauty of their long and bright trajectories makes up for any patient wait!

Geminid Meteor Shower – December 13 and 14

Closing out the year, the Geminid meteor shower promises to be one of the most intense events of 2025, producing up to 120 meteors per hour on peak nights.

Produced by debris left behind by an asteroid known as 3200 Phaethon, the vibrant colors and slow trajectories of its meteors are some of its striking features, making this shower a must-see for enthusiasts.

Supermoons
In 2025, unfortunately, we won't have many supermoons, but below are the dates so you don't miss these celestial spectacles.

November 5, 2025;
December 4, 2025.

![](https://m.stacker.news/70217)

Eclipses, Meteor Showers, and More: A Complete Guide to the 2025 Sky

All the knowledge already established in the history of humanity forces us to recognize that we still know very little about where we live. When we look at our intergalactic neighbor, things become even more nebulous.

The possibilities of atomic arrangements are infinite, however, we know a very limited amount of this whole. Some speculate that our knowledge of the different molecular recipes of the universe is no more than 1%.

But how is this possible if we have already traveled to space to collect samples and have already mapped part of the neighborhood of the solar system? The reality shows that in the macro world we have a superficial idea of ​​how things are organized, while in the molecular world, we barely know where to begin.

Too ephemeral to even be seen
If we look at the periodic table with its 118 elements, we might think that we have already discovered all the existing elements. But even though new elements are not discovered every day, researchers are daily investigating the possibility of new combinations, forms of decay and ways of making elements with lives measured in thousandths of a second more stable.

The truth is that, even though they are catalogued, some of the elements do not even have their molecular structure mapped. This makes it difficult to detect and understand how these elements can have practical uses or what the effects of their interactions with biological organisms are.

If measuring instruments were not sensitive enough to detect their presence, they might remain unknown for much longer.

Another barrier to learning more about the universe is our comparative list, which basically consists of the elements in the periodic table and a limited number of combinations of these elements.

We currently know that this is not enough to describe everything we observe in the chemical composition of the universe, partly because we do not know for sure what we are observing. After all, what we observe also suffers distortions due to gravitational lenses, formed by the action of gravity that deforms time and space.

Even though we have given names to the elements that make up the cosmos, we still simply do not know what dark matter is, and what it is composed of. It accounts for approximately 26.8% of the universe, and dark energy, which accounts for another 68% of the formation of everything we see outside the borders of our atmosphere.

There are even researchers who estimate that for the elements that are still unknown, it is necessary to formulate a specific periodic table. It is a new chemical world, stimulating a new science that is under construction and in constant change.

But why don't we see this here?

Pressure, temperature and affinity. On Earth, we have very specific temperature and pressure conditions. Although there is a variation depending on altitude and latitude, among other factors, we will never be able to reach temperatures and conditions to forge or fission elements such as stars and nebulae, for example.

Regarding affinity, some elements do not interact or bind with other molecules under normal conditions. In the laboratory, it is possible to try to provide this conjunction. But these bonds are usually unstable and break before we can even verify how the bonding structure was created.

Unfortunately, we are unable to generate scenarios similar to the Sun, stars and nebulae under conditions of pressure and temperature sufficient to test and simulate theoretical elements.

And in theories about the chemical composition of the universe, the possibilities of interaction and arrangement between the elements are in the millions. But without proof, there are no elements. Furthermore, it would not be possible to bring reliable samples back from space, due to the same challenges in forming the elements here on Earth.

Even if the equipment were capable of keeping the elements in ideal conditions of conservation during the entire trip, when we manipulate the elements in the laboratory, it is very likely that when we open the samples, we would stimulate the decay of the element, or else the bonds could break.

All of these are challenges that contribute to the fact that our knowledge has not yet advanced to the point where we fully understand the chemical composition of the universe. Furthermore, the immensity of the cosmos, with unimaginable distances, limits us.

Technology still needs to become more precise and sensitive so that we can find new elements and stabilize them to the point where they can be widely studied, from their structure to possible applications, such as in medicine, engineering, among others.

Who knows, maybe you will be one of those responsible for unraveling and discovering another little piece of the composition of the universe? There is still a lot to discover!

![](https://m.stacker.news/70208)

We know only 1% of the chemical composition of the universe

security

If you love to clog up your Chrome browser with multiple extensions, you'd better be careful and check how each one works. Or better yet, disable them, at least for now. That's because several companies suffered heavy attacks from cybercriminals on Christmas morning, December 25, when everyone was still eating leftovers from the night before.

The first company to report the malicious endeavor was the data protection startup — how ironic — Cyberhaven. This Friday (27), the company confirmed the cyberattack “affecting our Chrome extension”.

The company also cited public comments from cybersecurity experts, who suggested the attack was “part of a broader campaign to target Chrome extension developers across a wide range of companies”.

Well, as you know, browser extensions are typically used to personalize your browsing experiences, for example, by automatically applying coupons to shopping sites. In Cyberhaven's case, the Chrome add-on was used to help the company monitor and protect customer data flowing through web-based applications.

Cyberhaven declined to say what the extent of the problems were, and there is no estimate of the geographic extent or number of people or machines affected. However, it added that it is “actively cooperating with federal authorities.” It is worth noting that the company has more than 400,000 registered customers. Jaime Blasco, co-founder of Nudge Security, said he had detected several other Chrome extensions that had been hijacked in the same way as Cyberhaven’s. At least one appears to have been hit in mid-December. Blasco said the other affected extensions included those related to artificial intelligence and virtual private networks, and pointed to an opportunistic effort to hoover up sensitive data using as many compromised extensions as possible. “I am fairly certain this is not targeted at Cyberhaven,” Blasco said. “If I had to guess, this was just random.” The U.S. cyber watchdog CISA referred questions to the companies involved. A message seeking comment from Alphabet, which opens a new tab, which makes the Chrome browser, was not immediately returned.

Cybercriminals got hold of several Chrome extensions over Christmas

alter_native

A study conducted by the American scientific journal Environmental Science & Technology Letters shows that several smartwatches and smartbands sold worldwide have a high concentration of eternal chemicals — or FPAS. In short, these chemicals are given this name precisely because they are resistant to time and deterioration and can be highly harmful to health.

The research analyzed several smartwatches, from various categories and price ranges, but the common denominator among them was the material used in the strap, the fluoroelastomer — the famous silicone strap that accompanies most wearables sold today.

According to the researchers, a high level of perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) was found in 22 straps from different brands analyzed. According to them, this chemical can be easily absorbed by the skin. This can also be potentially aggravated by the fact that these straps are recommended for physical activities, since sweat can facilitate the absorption of the elements.

The researchers did not reveal which brands of smartwatches the eternal chemicals were found in, but they did point out that they could be present in any strap made with fluoroelastomer. This type of material is commonly used by popular brands such as Samsung, Apple, Amazfit, Huawei and Google.

It is important to note that, despite being potentially harmful to health — FPAS can increase the risk of cancer, in addition to being linked to cases of high cholesterol — there is still much research to be done on the subject. In any case, if possible, it is worth avoiding the use of this type of material.

Most manufacturers — such as Samsung and Apple — already offer additional straps made with other materials, such as Fabric Nylon, which are also recommended for sports and do not pose any risk of contamination by FPAS.

![](https://m.stacker.news/70120)