Disclaimer. This research did not aim to rank wallets or claim that some devices are better than others. We made all the benchmarks based on the same reference C libraries [1, 2, 3] on every tested wallet (with some per-wallet adoptions); we don’t claim it’s the most optimized or effective; it’s fairly average. Of course, the teams behind these wallets have deep knowledge of their own devices and may well achieve better results. We’d be glad to share any results, techniques, and implementations that beat our numbers. Anyway, a huge thank you to all teams behind for supporting self-custodial Bitcoin.

Acknowledgements. We want to thank Jade Team, especially Rich Grambergs, for sending a developer Jade Plus wallet; Ledger Team, represented by Charles Guillemet, for pointing out how we can launch custom apps on Ledgers; SatoshiLabs Group for the (almost) painless process of uploading a custom firmware even on non-developer wallets; and the BitBox team, especially Jad, for shipping us a developer BitBox02 Nova wallet. We want to thank Anastasiia Sapozhkova and Pavel Kravchenko for helping us get some of the dev devices. Last but not least - Jonas Nick, Mike Kudinov, Viktor Mashtaliar, and Yaroslava Chopa: thank you for the careful review and valuable feedback.