The Popes, from now on, begin and end with a cycle. On the one hand, the century starts with efforts to combat theological controversies, but a pivotal moment arrives: in 476, Rome falls. From that point, the Church must take on the responsibilities of half the fallen Empire and, at the same time, counter the Emperor in Constantinople’s desire to intervene in ecclesiastical matters.
- Zosimus [417-418] Following in his predecessor's footsteps was challenging, and this Pope was the complete opposite. Lacking knowledge in theology and philosophy and with a very bad temper, he made impulsive decisions...he even attempted to condemn Pelagianism1, but the ecclesiastical circle largely ignored him due to his characteristics.
- Boniface I [418-422] This Pope faced difficulties with the Eastern Church, heavily influenced by Emperor Flavius Honorius, who attempted to appoint Eulalius as Pope (antipope), leveraging support from some discontented bishops but ultimately failing. He banned slaves from being ordained as deacons, forbade women from burning incense at Mass, and touching sacred linens. Although he fully supported Augustine of Hippo in combating Pelagianism, he also made decisions that led Christians to feel less equal.
- Celestine I [422-432] This Pope focused mainly on the Nestorian controversy2, dedicating himself to fighting this and other heresies. As these heresies grew, he had two powerful allies: Palladius of Scotland and Germanus of Auxerre, both evangelizing in Northern Europe and resisting Pelagianism.
- Sixtus III [432-440] Before becoming Pope, he served as an advisor to the previous three Popes, learning about theology and politics. In response to the Nestorian controversy, he rebuilt the Basilica of Saint Mary Major, where, for the first time in Christian art, the Virgin Mary is depicted in imperial attire. In his youth, he showed favor to Pelagius’s doctrines and faced criticism during his papacy for being overly conciliatory with Nestorius. The theological clashes were so intense that they surprised many, and the destruction of charity began.
- Leo the Great [440-461] This is a legendary Pope, easily one of the most important not only in Christianity but in history. He wrote nearly 150 letters and numerous sermons throughout his career, presenting Jesus as the mediator and savior of humanity and the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God who gave birth to Jesus, the Lord, the Son of King David. He corresponded with the Eastern Church and frequently sent apostolic emissaries. In 452, he met Attila the Hun in Mantua; the outcome of their discussion, left to our imagination, resulted in the Huns abandoning Italy. Later, Genseric the Vandal sacked Rome, but the Pope convinced him not to burn the basilicas of St. John Lateran, St. Peter’s, and St. Paul’s. In a theological work sent to the Eastern Emperor Flavian, Leo reaffirmed Rome's supremacy in matters of faith, underscoring that the Emperor’s motives were more political than theological. He also challenged Toribio of Astorga on his Priscillianist beliefs3.
- Hilary [461-468] A former legate of the previous Pope, he dedicated his time to resolving and conciliating the churches in Hispania. In matters of faith, he combated Constantinople’s assertions and affirmed the Pope’s authority, setting a precedent that would reappear in the 1870 decree on papal infallibility. He faced criticism for excessive spending during a time of crisis.
- Simplicius [468-483] He faced the toughest challenges, as he personally experienced the fall of Rome when Odoacer, the Germanic king of the Heruli, sent the imperial seals from Romulus Augustulus to the East. The fall left a strong possibility of losing churches in Africa and the Levant. To preserve his predecessor's gains, Simplicius appointed Zeno, Bishop of Seville, as his Pontifical Vicar, the Pope’s long arm, marking the modern birth of what we know as an ambassador.
- Felix III [483-492] Married and father of two children. He faced a challenging papacy, as the Arians exploited Rome’s fall to overtake Northern churches and impose their doctrine. To "protect" his papacy from Eastern influences, he sought political support from Odoacer, King of the Heruli and Ostrogoths. Unknowingly, he triggered a strong crisis: the king's intervention in papal elections for the coming centuries.
- Gelasian [492-496] This Pope wrote a work called De duabus in Christo naturis (On the Dual Nature of Christ) in which he explained the division between the divine and the earthly within the Church. His aim was to separate the Pope’s duties into the political (earthly) and the matters of faith (divine); the Church held auctoritas (authority), while the Emperor held potestas (power). Naturally, the Church’s authority took precedence over the Emperor’s. Gelasian fought Manichaeism and made a significant contribution to the Mass by introducing the prayer Kyrie eleison, “Lord, have mercy.”
- Anastasius II [496-498] In an attempt to calm tensions between East and West, he sought peace with the Monophysites, the dominant doctrine in the Eastern Church. Interestingly, in The Divine Comedy's Canto X of Inferno, Dante Alighieri places Anastasius's tomb there, attributing it to Bishop Photinus for his attempt to make peace with heresies: Anastasio papa guardo/lo qual trasse Fotin de la via dritta (I guard Pope Anastasius/he whom Photinus drew from the straight path)
With the next Pope, even the decisions around elections become more complicated, with imperial interventions becoming more severe, but that is for the next chapter.
Footnotes
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Pelagianism, a doctrine promoted by the philosopher Pelagius, claimed that original sin did not taint human nature and that, through free will, humans could achieve perfection. Augustine of Hippo, initially a supporter, later became its main opponent, arguing that if there were no original sin in humans, God’s divine grace would hold no weight and that all are sinners; it is in the humility of seeing ourselves this way that God forgives offenses against Him and ourselves. ↩
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Nestorius, archbishop and Patriarch of Constantinople, questioned the designation of the Virgin Mary as Mother of God. He argued that Mary could not be the Mother of God but was the mother of Jesus in his human nature, suggesting the title Christotokos (Mother of Christ) rather than Theotokos (Mother of God). Though accepted for some time, his doctrine was declared heretical at the Council of Ephesus (431). ↩
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Priscillianists, followers of Priscillian, bishop of Hispania, believed the Church should renounce all wealth and adopt poverty, abstain from alcohol, and avoid marriage. Although mainly a social issue at the time, Priscillianists were anti-Trinitarian and denied the incarnation of the Word, claiming angels and human souls were of the same nature as God. This gnostic-like belief was condemned as heretical at the Council of Braga (561). ↩