This period is marked by the permanent burial of Monothelitism and the emergence of new threats to the Papacy. As Byzantium begins to lose control over Rome, the emperors play their last cards to continue pursuing the Caesaro-papism they so coveted. The Arabs start becoming a serious threat to Europe, and Christianity must rebound. Byzantium has no intention of helping unless the popes intercede on its behalf.
79. Agatho [678-681]
Patron saint of Palermo, the city of his birth. This Pope swiftly dealt with the Monothelites1 and Monoenergists, condemning them at the Council of Constantinople (681) and confirming the stance established by Martin [74] on the matter. Due to irregularities in England, another council was convened in Rome (679) to address alleged unjust depositions and ordinations, resulting in victory for Saint Wilfrid.
80. Leo II [682-683]
As soon as his predecessor passed away, he closed the Council of Constantinople and, before doing so, condemned Honorius [70] for his lukewarm and complicit stance on the Monothelites. Recall that Honorius had declared the Monothelites heretics but had done so with reluctance, aiming to avoid conflict with the Emperor. Leo II also put an end to the Archbishopric of Ravenna and resolved the issue that no bishop could be consecrated without papal authorization.
81. Benedict II [684-685]
His consecration was delayed an entire year awaiting imperial approval. During this period, the documents from the Council of Constantinople were published, and many bishops rejected them as heretical. Julian of Toledo challenged the new pope, who had Monothelite sympathies, prompting the Pope to require bishops to swear obedience to the council's decisions.
82. John V [685-686]
Oriental Pope 1/9. Agatho’s representative at the Council of Constantinople. He oversaw the ecclesial situation in the churches of Africa and the Levant, which were being persecuted by Arab troops.
83. Conon [686-687]
Oriental Pope 2/9. Held office for only 20 days and reportedly died of poisoning.
84. Sergius I [687-701]
Oriental Pope 3/9. Of Syrian descent and a learned man who craved power. He allegedly bribed the Exarch of Ravenna to approve his confirmation. During his papacy, the Quinisext Council was convened, resulting in 102 canons. Although approved by papal apocrisiaries, the Pope rejected it, as six of its canons directly contradicted Roman law. Ferdinand Gregorovius described him as decisive against Byzantium, as the Italian populace and soldiers grew weary of orders from there. He acknowledged the value of monasticism by appointing Willibrord, a Saxon monk, highlighting monasticism’s role as an entryway to Christianity in many regions. He established the Feast of Candlemas and the Annunciation and introduced the Agnus Dei.
85. John VI [701-705]
Oriental Pope 4/9. Tried to harmonize relations with the Byzantines.
86. John VII [705-707]
Oriental Pope 5/9. Rebuilt the Monastery of Saint Benedict, which had been destroyed by the Arabs.
87. Sisinnius [708]
Oriental Pope 6/9. Assumed office while ill and died after 20 days.
88. Constantine [708-715]
Oriental Pope 7/9. The last Pope to travel to Constantinople (710-711) to resolve disputes from the Quinisext Council2. Emperor Justinian II faced off against Philippicus Bardanes, who assassinated the Emperor and seized power. The Pope refused to recognize the new Emperor, who in turn reverted to Monothelitism. Significantly, Bardanes’ actions indicated that, for the first time in history, an Emperor sought papal confirmation.
89. Gregory II [715-731]
Oriental Pope 8/9. From a noble family and a papal secretary before his ascension, he tasked Boniface the Saxon with evangelizing Germany, achieving remarkable success in a short time. Boniface would later be promoted to archbishop in 737. Gregory II opposed Leo III the Isaurian on the issue of iconoclasm3. The Emperor ordered the Pope to destroy images, which the Pope disregarded, asserting that the Emperor had no authority over matters of faith. The Emperor sent the Exarch of Ravenna to enforce this, but Italy revolted against Byzantium with protests and riots. The Pope initiated talks with Charles Martel, who, reluctant to confront the Exarch, sought aid from Liutprand, King of the Lombards, who eventually conquered Ravenna.
90. Gregory III [731-741]
Oriental Pope 9/9. The last Pope to seek approval from Byzantium, he directly confronted both the Iconoclasts and the Lombards, who had invaded Ravenna. Following the victory at Poitiers (732), which halted the Arab advance into Europe, the Pope offered Charles Martel the title of Consul of Rome. In theological matters, he instituted All Saints’ Day on November 1. Notably, he was the last non-European Pope until 2013.
With this Pope, the focus gradually shifted from Byzantium to Europe, where Italians, Franks, and Germans would ultimately contend with the Pope for European power in both theological and administrative matters. But that is for another chapter.
Footnotes
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Monothelitism is a doctrine developed by Sergius of Constantinople, asserting that Christ has two natures, human and divine, united by a single will. It was an attempt to reconcile Trinitarian Christians and Monophysites, but it struggled to express this union satisfactorily since Monophysites largely rejected the human nature of Christ. It was condemned as heresy at the Council of Constantinople (680-681). ↩
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The Quinisext Council was convened by Justinian II to review the Second and Third Councils of Constantinople. It issued 102 canons, including prohibitions on priests consulting Jewish doctors and using public baths (Canon 11), bans on marrying prostitutes, actresses, or slaves for those entering the priesthood, a prohibition on eating cheese during Lent (Canon 61), and forbidding the term Lamb of God for Jesus. It is considered one of the most unnecessary councils in history, even labeled synodus erratica. ↩
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Iconoclasm is the rejection of religious images. Leo III ordered the destruction of representations of Jesus, Mary, and the saints, arguing that image veneration constituted idolatry. He believed that depicting living beings was blasphemous against salvation. Subsequent popes defended medieval art, emphasizing that its portrayal aligns with God’s word and that the representations are not imaginary but are reflections of divine truth. ↩